見習技術主任(土木工程)在三年受訓期內主要被派往接受培訓，其中包括以下範疇的在職培訓；如部門認為有需要，亦會安排人員修讀全日制或兼讀課程
(a) 製備各類土木工程圖則、圖表及簡圖；
(b) 進行簡單工程計算及間中執行工地職務；以及
(c) 協助簡單電腦操作及提供電腦技術支援。
2015年9月9日星期三
Quantitative research II
Research question
Population
Intervention
Control
Outcomes
Structured data collection methods
Structured self-report
Structured observation
Biophysiologic measure
Closed-ended questions
Dichotomous questions
Multiple-choice questions
Cafeteria questions
- Ask respondents to select a statement best representing their view
Rank-order questions
Forced-choice questions
- Respondents choose between two alternative statements that represent polar positions or characteristics
Scaling technique
Likert scale
- Response choices commonly address agreement (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree), evaluation (excellent, good, satisfactory, unsatisfactory, poor), frequency (almost never, occasionally, usually, almost always)
Semantic differential scale
- Respondents rate a concept on a series of bipolar adjectives
- Higher score usually represents positively worded adjective
Visual analogue scale
- Used to measure subjective experiences (e.g. pain, stress, anxiety)
Social desirability bias
- Tendency of respondents to give an answer that are congruent with prevailing social norm desirability
Extreme response bias
- A tendency to consistently express attitudes or feelings in extreme response alternatives / middle-range alternatives, which might not really reflect the actual intensity
Acquiescence response set bias
- A tendency to agree or disagree with all statements, regardless of the content
Biophysiologic measures
- in vivo measures (within or on living organisms)
- in vitro measures (involves extracting physiologic material from subject and submitting it for laboratory analysis)
Population
Intervention
Control
Outcomes
Structured data collection methods
Structured self-report
Structured observation
Biophysiologic measure
Closed-ended questions
Dichotomous questions
Multiple-choice questions
Cafeteria questions
- Ask respondents to select a statement best representing their view
Rank-order questions
Forced-choice questions
- Respondents choose between two alternative statements that represent polar positions or characteristics
Scaling technique
Likert scale
- Response choices commonly address agreement (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree), evaluation (excellent, good, satisfactory, unsatisfactory, poor), frequency (almost never, occasionally, usually, almost always)
Semantic differential scale
- Respondents rate a concept on a series of bipolar adjectives
- Higher score usually represents positively worded adjective
Visual analogue scale
- Used to measure subjective experiences (e.g. pain, stress, anxiety)
Social desirability bias
- Tendency of respondents to give an answer that are congruent with prevailing social norm desirability
Extreme response bias
- A tendency to consistently express attitudes or feelings in extreme response alternatives / middle-range alternatives, which might not really reflect the actual intensity
Acquiescence response set bias
- A tendency to agree or disagree with all statements, regardless of the content
Biophysiologic measures
- in vivo measures (within or on living organisms)
- in vitro measures (involves extracting physiologic material from subject and submitting it for laboratory analysis)
2015年9月8日星期二
Revision of quantitative research
Positivist
Quantitative methodology
Deductive reasoning
Make prediction from a general principle
A researcher try to address a problem of interest by extrapolating the implication of a theory or conceptual framework
Develop a hypothesis and test it by collecting evidence in real life
Concepts
Research involves abstractions, e.g. the terms pain, anxiety, and quality of life are all abstractions of particular aspects of human behavior and characteristics
These abstractions are called concepts
Construct are abstractions that are deliberately and systematically constructed by researchers for a scientific purpose, e.g. self-care, health locus of control, etc. The terms construct and concept are sometimes used interchangeably, although by convention, a construct often refers to a more complex abstraction than a concept
Study variable is a well defined and measurable form of concept to be studied in a research
Conceptualization (conceptual definition)
A process of defining or refining an abstract ideas
By generalizing about particular manifestations of human behavior and characteristics
Operationalization (operational definition)
Specifies the procedures and tools required for measurement of a concept
Theory
An abstract generalization that presents a systematic explanation about how phenomena (concepts?) are interrelated
Consists of:
A set of interrelated concepts
A set of propositions that systematically explain the relationships of the concepts
Framework
An explanation, based on the literature, of how the variables in your study are expected to related to each other and why
Theoretical framework underpins (supports) the relationship between study variables with a theory
Conceptual framework underpins the relationship between study variables, with information from literature, but not a theory
Independent variable
The variable that is believed to cause or influence the dependent variable
In experimental research, independent variable is a variable which the researcher manipulates
Dependent variable
The variable that depends on or be caused by independent variable
Cause-and-effect (causal) relationship
One variable caused the other
Functional (associative) relationship
One variable changes values in relation to changes in the other variable
Experimental hypothesis
Statement of expected relationships between the independent and dependent variables
Null hypothesis
Hypothesis which state that there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables
For the purpose of statistical testing and for interpreting statistical outcomes
Manipulation
Researcher does something to some subjects, e.g. introduces an intervention or treatment
Randomization
Also called random assignment
Researcher assigns participants to groups at random
Control
No intervention
Alternative intervention
Usual care
Placebo
Experimental (randomized controlled trial)
Manipulation of independent variable
Control group
Randomization
Quasi-experimental
Manipulation of independent variable
May not have control group or randomization
Non-experimental
No manipulation of independent variable
Data collection frequency
Cross-sectional: data are collected at one point in time
Longitudinal: data are collected at two or more points in time over an extended period
Retrospective
Study begins with dependent variable and looks backward for cause or influence
Prospective
Study begins with independent variable and looks forward for the effect
Non-experimental designs
Correlational (ex post facto ~ from after the fact) designs
- Prospective designs (Cohort studies)
- Retrospective designs
Descriptive designs
Generalizability
It relates to the extent that the results can be applied to other groups of people who are outside the study sample
Sample / Accessible population / Target population
Stratified random sampling
Process of selecting a sample to identify subgroups in the population that represented in the sample at random
(Proportionate / Disproportionate)
e.g. RN ~ Baccalaureate graduates / Diploma school graduates
Cluster (Multistage) sampling
A successive random sampling of units (clusters) from large to small which meet sample eligibility criteria
Systematic sampling
The process of selecting every kth case from the list
Convenience sampling
Subjects are chosen on the basis of availability
Consecutive sampling
Taking the complete accessible population within a defined period of time in the study
Snowball sampling
Relies on early sample subjects to refer others who meet the study eligibility criteria, to participate in the study
Quota sampling
Identify population strata of the population and then determine how many subjects are needed for each stratum to meet a quota according to the subjects' availability
Reliability
The consistency and accuracy with which an instrument measures the attribute
Validity
The degree to which an instrument measures what is supposed to be measuring
Statistical significance is a term that indicated the results obtained in a research study are unlikely caused by chance
Type I error
Wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis
Type II error
Wrongly accepting a false null hypothesis
Crossover design
The exposure of the same subjects to more than one experimental treatment
Blocking / Stratification
Identify the possible confounding / extraneous variable, e.g. gender
Factorial design
Manipulate two or more independent variables simultaneously
External validity
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from the study sample to the larger population
Internal validity
The extent to which the change in the dependent variable (outcome) is truly due to the influence of independent variable, but not the other factors
History threat
The change in dependent variable is due to the occurrence of events concurrent with the independent variable
When external events affect one group more than another
Selection threat
The study result is due to the pre-existing differences between study groups before the manipulation on the independent variables (lack of randomization)
Maturation threat
The change in the dependent variable is due to any kind of change that occur as a result of time, but not only related to the independent variable
Attrition is not at random -> mortality threat
Hawthorne effect
Subjects respond in a certain manner because they are aware that they are being observed
Experimenter effect
Occur when the researcher characteristic or behavior influence subjects response to treatment / a questionnaire
Double-blind technique
A technique in which the subjects, the researcher who administer the interventions, or the data collector, are unaware of which subjects are assigned to the experimental and control group
Measurement effect
When a pretest and posttest are used, measurement effect occurs when subjects have been sensitized to the treatment through taking the pretest
Systematic reviews
The use of a rigorous method to summarize the findings of all methodologically sound studies that address the same research question
Meta-analysis
Statistically combining the data produced by individual studies
The odd ratio is a way of comparing whether the probability of a certain event is the same for two groups
Evidence-based nursing
The process by which nurses make clinical decisions using the best available evidence, their clinical expertise and patient's preferences
Quantitative methodology
Deductive reasoning
Make prediction from a general principle
A researcher try to address a problem of interest by extrapolating the implication of a theory or conceptual framework
Develop a hypothesis and test it by collecting evidence in real life
Concepts
Research involves abstractions, e.g. the terms pain, anxiety, and quality of life are all abstractions of particular aspects of human behavior and characteristics
These abstractions are called concepts
Construct are abstractions that are deliberately and systematically constructed by researchers for a scientific purpose, e.g. self-care, health locus of control, etc. The terms construct and concept are sometimes used interchangeably, although by convention, a construct often refers to a more complex abstraction than a concept
Study variable is a well defined and measurable form of concept to be studied in a research
Conceptualization (conceptual definition)
A process of defining or refining an abstract ideas
By generalizing about particular manifestations of human behavior and characteristics
Operationalization (operational definition)
Specifies the procedures and tools required for measurement of a concept
Theory
An abstract generalization that presents a systematic explanation about how phenomena (concepts?) are interrelated
Consists of:
A set of interrelated concepts
A set of propositions that systematically explain the relationships of the concepts
Framework
An explanation, based on the literature, of how the variables in your study are expected to related to each other and why
Theoretical framework underpins (supports) the relationship between study variables with a theory
Conceptual framework underpins the relationship between study variables, with information from literature, but not a theory
Independent variable
The variable that is believed to cause or influence the dependent variable
In experimental research, independent variable is a variable which the researcher manipulates
Dependent variable
The variable that depends on or be caused by independent variable
Cause-and-effect (causal) relationship
One variable caused the other
Functional (associative) relationship
One variable changes values in relation to changes in the other variable
Experimental hypothesis
Statement of expected relationships between the independent and dependent variables
Null hypothesis
Hypothesis which state that there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables
For the purpose of statistical testing and for interpreting statistical outcomes
Manipulation
Researcher does something to some subjects, e.g. introduces an intervention or treatment
Randomization
Also called random assignment
Researcher assigns participants to groups at random
Control
No intervention
Alternative intervention
Usual care
Placebo
Experimental (randomized controlled trial)
Manipulation of independent variable
Control group
Randomization
Quasi-experimental
Manipulation of independent variable
May not have control group or randomization
Non-experimental
No manipulation of independent variable
Data collection frequency
Cross-sectional: data are collected at one point in time
Longitudinal: data are collected at two or more points in time over an extended period
Retrospective
Study begins with dependent variable and looks backward for cause or influence
Prospective
Study begins with independent variable and looks forward for the effect
Non-experimental designs
Correlational (ex post facto ~ from after the fact) designs
- Prospective designs (Cohort studies)
- Retrospective designs
Descriptive designs
Generalizability
It relates to the extent that the results can be applied to other groups of people who are outside the study sample
Sample / Accessible population / Target population
Stratified random sampling
Process of selecting a sample to identify subgroups in the population that represented in the sample at random
(Proportionate / Disproportionate)
e.g. RN ~ Baccalaureate graduates / Diploma school graduates
Cluster (Multistage) sampling
A successive random sampling of units (clusters) from large to small which meet sample eligibility criteria
Systematic sampling
The process of selecting every kth case from the list
Convenience sampling
Subjects are chosen on the basis of availability
Consecutive sampling
Taking the complete accessible population within a defined period of time in the study
Snowball sampling
Relies on early sample subjects to refer others who meet the study eligibility criteria, to participate in the study
Quota sampling
Identify population strata of the population and then determine how many subjects are needed for each stratum to meet a quota according to the subjects' availability
Reliability
The consistency and accuracy with which an instrument measures the attribute
Validity
The degree to which an instrument measures what is supposed to be measuring
Statistical significance is a term that indicated the results obtained in a research study are unlikely caused by chance
Type I error
Wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis
Type II error
Wrongly accepting a false null hypothesis
Crossover design
The exposure of the same subjects to more than one experimental treatment
Blocking / Stratification
Identify the possible confounding / extraneous variable, e.g. gender
Factorial design
Manipulate two or more independent variables simultaneously
External validity
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from the study sample to the larger population
Internal validity
The extent to which the change in the dependent variable (outcome) is truly due to the influence of independent variable, but not the other factors
History threat
The change in dependent variable is due to the occurrence of events concurrent with the independent variable
When external events affect one group more than another
Selection threat
The study result is due to the pre-existing differences between study groups before the manipulation on the independent variables (lack of randomization)
Maturation threat
The change in the dependent variable is due to any kind of change that occur as a result of time, but not only related to the independent variable
Attrition is not at random -> mortality threat
Hawthorne effect
Subjects respond in a certain manner because they are aware that they are being observed
Experimenter effect
Occur when the researcher characteristic or behavior influence subjects response to treatment / a questionnaire
Double-blind technique
A technique in which the subjects, the researcher who administer the interventions, or the data collector, are unaware of which subjects are assigned to the experimental and control group
Measurement effect
When a pretest and posttest are used, measurement effect occurs when subjects have been sensitized to the treatment through taking the pretest
Systematic reviews
The use of a rigorous method to summarize the findings of all methodologically sound studies that address the same research question
Meta-analysis
Statistically combining the data produced by individual studies
The odd ratio is a way of comparing whether the probability of a certain event is the same for two groups
Evidence-based nursing
The process by which nurses make clinical decisions using the best available evidence, their clinical expertise and patient's preferences
ageing.hku.hk/ev/2c/page3.htm
肩胛抱法︰面向長者，雙手穿過長者腋窩，抱著肩胛位置
穿臂握法︰站在長者後面，雙手穿過腋窩，抓握長者雙臂(關節位)
臥至坐
先將長者雙腿屈曲
轉側身(注意肩膊重心不要墮後)
雙腿放下床邊
扶長者坐起來，應托着長者肩膀，而不是頸部
輪椅至椅子
先把輪椅和椅子擺成90度角，避免將輪椅和椅子相對，也不要將輪椅和椅子平排
提醒長者配合轉移的動作
切勿彎腰，必要時可紮穏馬步
雙人輔助時，要同時發力
轉移前要鎖上輪椅煞掣
如輪椅可以拆除扶手和腳踏，會更方便
上落樓梯
好的上天堂，壞的落地獄
攙扶長者時，應支撐他的腋窩，切勿拉他的手臂
The shoulder hug: put both hands under their arms from the front, and hold them over their shoulder blades
The underarm grip: stand behind them, put both hands under their arms, and grip their forearms
Lying down to sitting up
Bend up both knees
Turn the whole body on one's side
Bring both legs over the bed edge
Sit up (lever the person up by the shoulder, not the neck)
Wheelchair to chair/commode
Position the chairs at an angle of 90 degrees
Avoid positioning them facing each other
Don't place them side by side
One/two-person assistance
Encourage the individual being transferred to assist as far as possible
Don't bend at your waist, straddle if necessary
For two-person assistance, both must apply leverage at the same time
Make sure the brakes of the wheelchair are on before transfer
Wheelchairs with detachable armrest and footrest allow easier transfer
Up/down the stairs
Always step up with the stronger leg first; and step down with the weaker leg first
If you use a walking stick, always place the stick ahead of you for support
Support the person under the arm, don't pull them by the arm
穿臂握法︰站在長者後面，雙手穿過腋窩，抓握長者雙臂(關節位)
臥至坐
先將長者雙腿屈曲
轉側身(注意肩膊重心不要墮後)
雙腿放下床邊
扶長者坐起來，應托着長者肩膀，而不是頸部
輪椅至椅子
先把輪椅和椅子擺成90度角，避免將輪椅和椅子相對，也不要將輪椅和椅子平排
提醒長者配合轉移的動作
切勿彎腰，必要時可紮穏馬步
雙人輔助時，要同時發力
轉移前要鎖上輪椅煞掣
如輪椅可以拆除扶手和腳踏，會更方便
上落樓梯
好的上天堂，壞的落地獄
攙扶長者時，應支撐他的腋窩，切勿拉他的手臂
The shoulder hug: put both hands under their arms from the front, and hold them over their shoulder blades
The underarm grip: stand behind them, put both hands under their arms, and grip their forearms
Lying down to sitting up
Bend up both knees
Turn the whole body on one's side
Bring both legs over the bed edge
Sit up (lever the person up by the shoulder, not the neck)
Wheelchair to chair/commode
Position the chairs at an angle of 90 degrees
Avoid positioning them facing each other
Don't place them side by side
One/two-person assistance
Encourage the individual being transferred to assist as far as possible
Don't bend at your waist, straddle if necessary
For two-person assistance, both must apply leverage at the same time
Make sure the brakes of the wheelchair are on before transfer
Wheelchairs with detachable armrest and footrest allow easier transfer
Up/down the stairs
Always step up with the stronger leg first; and step down with the weaker leg first
If you use a walking stick, always place the stick ahead of you for support
Support the person under the arm, don't pull them by the arm
2015年8月10日星期一
fromsiusiu.wordpress.com
https://fromsiusiu.wordpress.com/2014/10/03/%E8%A6%AA%E6%88%9A%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82%E9%BB%9E%E7%A8%B1%E5%91%BC/
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